© 2006 Qon cortesú d'Wikipedia
Na Istorú - the history
The International Phonetic Alphabet is a system used for describing the sounds of spoken language. It was originally developed by French and British language teachers (led by Paul Passy) under the auspices of the International Phonetic Association, established in Paris in 1886 (both the organisation and the phonetic script are best known as IPA). The first official version of the alphabet appears in Passy (1888). These teachers based the IPA upon the Romic alphabet of Henry Sweet (1880–1881, 1971), which was formed from the Phonotypic Alphabet of Isaac Pitman and Alexander John Ellis (Kelly 1981).
The alphabet has undergone a number of revisions during its history, including some major ones codified by the IPA Kiel Convention (1989); the most recent revision was in 1993, updated again in 1996. The extIPA was first created in 1991, revised to 1997; the VoQS (Voice Quality Symbols) was proposed in 1995 to provide a system for more detailed transcription of voice production (Ball et al. 1995).
The International Phonetic Association was founded in Paris in 1886 under the name Dhi Fonètik Tîcerz' Asóciécon (The Phonetic Teachers' Association), a development of L'Association Phonétique des Professeurs d'Anglais (The English Teachers' Phonetic Association), to create an international phonetic alphabet. The sources for many of the symbols was Henry Sweet's Revised Romic system, which was in turn based on Pitman and Alexander Ellis's Phonotypic Alphabet. Several of the symbols, such as [ŋ] and [ʇ], had been used since the early 17th century.
Na deskripzon - the description
The general principle of the IPA is to provide a separate symbol for each speech segment, avoiding letter combinations (digraphs) such as sh and th in English orthography, and avoiding ambiguity such as that of c in English.
Na prinzipal d'formazonoq - The principle of formation
The IPA is what MacMahon (1996) has termed a "selective" phonetic alphabet. This means that it does not have separate symbols for two sounds if there does not exist a language in which these two sounds are contrasted with one another. In other words, it aims to provide a separate symbol for every contrastive (or phonemic) sound occurring in human language.
For instance, flaps and taps are two different kinds of articulaThe letters chosen for the IPA are generally drawn from the Latin and Greek alphabets, or are modifications of Latin or Greek letters. There are also a few letters derived from Latin punctuation, such as the glottal stop ʔ (originally an apostrophe, but later given the form of a "gelded" question mark to have the visual impact of the other consonants), and one, [ʕ], although Latin in form, was inspired by Arabic letter <ﻉ> `ain. On the other hand, the original Latin-derived symbols for the clicks have been abandoned in favor of iconic Khoisanist symbols such as ǁ.
The sound-values of most consonants taken from the Latin alphabet correspond to those of French, and are also close to those of most other European languages: such consonants include [b], [d], [f], [g], [k], [l], [m], [n], [p], (unvoiced) [s], [t], [v], [z]. English values are used for [h] and [w]. The vowels from the Latin alphabet ([a], [e], [i], [o], [u]) correspond to the vowels of Spanish and are similar to those of Italian. [i] is like the vowel in piece, [u] like rule, etc.
The other symbols from the Latin alphabet, [c], [j], [q], [r], [x], and [y], correspond to sounds these letters represent in various other languages. [j] has the Slavic and Germanic value of
Letters that share a particular modification sometimes correspond to a similar type of sound. For example, all the retroflex consonants have the same symbol as the equivalent alveolar consonants, with the addition of a rightward facing hook at the bottom (e.g., [ʈ] for [t], [ɖ] for [d], etc.) Although there is some correspondence between modified letters and their unmodified versions, it is usually not possible to deduce the features of a sound (tongue position, manner of articulation, etc.) from the shape of its IPA symbol. For instance, there is no consistent relationship between lowercase letters and their small capital counterparts, nor are all labial consonants linked through a common design.
Diacritic marks can be combined with IPA letters to transcribe modified phonetic values or secondary articulations. There are also special symbols for suprasegmental features such as stress and tone.tion, but since no language has (yet) been found to make a phonemic distinction between, say, an alveolar flap and an alveolar tap, the IPA does not provide them with dedicated symbols. Instead, it provides a single symbol (in this case, [ɾ]), that represents both sounds. For non-contrastive (that is, phonetic or subphonemic) details of these sounds, the IPA relies on diacritics, which are optional. Thus there is a certain level of flexibility in representing a language with the IPA.
Ni prinzipali aft symboli - the principles behind the symbols
The letters chosen for the IPA are generally drawn from the Latin and Greek alphabets, or are modifications of Latin or Greek letters. There are also a few letters derived from Latin punctuation, such as the glottal stop ʔ (originally an apostrophe, but later given the form of a "gelded" question mark to have the visual impact of the other consonants), and one, [ʕ], although Latin in form, was inspired by Arabic letter <ﻉ> `ain. On the other hand, the original Latin-derived symbols for the clicks have been abandoned in favor of iconic Khoisanist symbols such as ǁ.
The sound-values of most consonants taken from the Latin alphabet correspond to those of French, and are also close to those of most other European languages: such consonants include [b], [d], [f], [g], [k], [l], [m], [n], [p], (unvoiced) [s], [t], [v], [z]. English values are used for [h] and [w]. The vowels from the Latin alphabet ([a], [e], [i], [o], [u]) correspond to the vowels of Spanish and are similar to those of Italian. [i] is like the vowel in piece, [u] like rule, etc.
The other symbols from the Latin alphabet, [c], [j], [q], [r], [x], and [y], correspond to sounds these letters represent in various other languages. [j] has the Slavic and Germanic value of
Letters that share a particular modification sometimes correspond to a similar type of sound. For example, all the retroflex consonants have the same symbol as the equivalent alveolar consonants, with the addition of a rightward facing hook at the bottom (e.g., [ʈ] for [t], [ɖ] for [d], etc.) Although there is some correspondence between modified letters and their unmodified versions, it is usually not possible to deduce the features of a sound (tongue position, manner of articulation, etc.) from the shape of its IPA symbol. For instance, there is no consistent relationship between lowercase letters and their small capital counterparts, nor are all labial consonants linked through a common design.
Diacritic marks can be combined with IPA letters to transcribe modified phonetic values or secondary articulations. There are also special symbols for suprasegmental features such as stress and tone.
Ni typi d'transkripzonoq - the types of transcription
Phonetic transcription (or phonetic notation) is the visual system of symbolization of the sounds occurring in spoken human language. The most common type of phonetic transcription uses a phonetic alphabet (such as the International Phonetic Alphabet).
Phonetic transcription may aim to transcribe the phonology of a language, or it may wish to go further and specify the precise phonetic realisation. In all systems of transcription we may therefore distinguish between broad transcription and narrow transcription. Broad transcription indicates only the phonemes of an utterance, whereas narrow transcription encodes information about the phonetic variations of the specific allophones in the utterance.
For example, one particular pronunciation of the English word little may be transcribed using the IPA as /lɪtl/ or [lɪtɫ]; the broad, phonemic transcription, placed between slashes, indicates merely that the word ends with phoneme /l/, but the narrow, allophonic transcription, placed between square brackets, indicates that this final /l/ is dark.
The advantage of the narrow transcription is that it can help learners to get exactly the right sound, and allows linguists to make detailed analyses of language variation. The disadvantage is that a narrow transcription is rarely representative of all speakers of a language. Some Americans would pronounce the /t/ of little as a [d]. A further disadvantage in less technical contexts is that narrow transcription involves a larger number of symbols which may be unfamiliar to non-specialists.
The advantage of the broad transcription is that it allows statements to be made which apply right across a relatively diverse language community. It is thus more appropriate for the pronunciation data in foreign language dictionaries, which may discuss allophones in the preface but rarely give them for each entry. A rule of thumb in many linguistics contexts is therefore to use a narrow transcription when it is necessary for the point being made, but a broad transcription whenever possible.
Por mor informazoni laq International Phonetic Alphabet go visit WIKIPEDIA et por mor informazoni laq Iorpún go qontakt iorpun@gmail.com, qon-vil-qa'ud!
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